Monoclonal Antibodies in the Treatment of Cancer
Paul Ehrlich was the first proponent of using antibodies or “magic bullets” to target tumor cells (1) and in recent years, monoclonal antibody (MAb or MAB) drugs have found their way into cancer treatment regimens.(2) Of the 69 new cancer drugs approved by the FDA from 2015 to 2020, 16 are unconjugated monoclonal antibodies and another 5 are conjugated of an MAb and another active drug.
Why can’t the body’s own immune cells go after the malignant cells? Cancer is clever. The transformed cancer cells evade the immune system through biochemical camouflage.(3) Immunotherapy (monoclonal antibodies and cancer vaccines) can make cancer cells visible to the natural immune system by taking advantage of molecular markers selectively present on cancer cells only.(4) Monoclonal antibodies, engineered in the laboratory and produced either in mice or through advanced hybridoma technology in humanized or chimeric forms, mimic the natural antibodies of the body.(5)
MAbs generally fight cancer in one of three ways: (1) by activating the body’s immune system, (2) by attaching to biochemical receptors on the external walls of malignant cells, and thereby stopping the receptors from interacting with signaling molecules, or (3) by bringing radioactive materials or toxins to the inside of the cancer cells by attaching to cellular receptors.
In addition to re-targeting cancer cells to the immune system (activating the immune system), monoclonal antibodies can also function by attenuating hyperactive growth signals (inhibiting cancer cell multiplication). In other words, the antibodies attach to receptors on the outside of malignant cells to prevent the receptors from interacting with signaling molecules that tell the cell to multiply. Related to this, MAbs act through antiangiogenesis – inhibiting new blood vessel formation, in turn starving cancer cells of nutrition and oxygen supply.(6)
Monoclonal antibodies are either delivered alone (“Unconjugated”) or in combination with other cellular targets (“Chimeric” or “Conjugated”). Conjugation with a “payload” is the third way MAbs can fight cancer cells. For example, a monoclonal antibody can be conjugated to a radioactive particle. This promotes transport of the particle to the cancerous cells and only the cancerous cells. The radiation can thus be targeted at a microscopic level. This precise targeting is what Paul Ehrlich had in mind a century ago and maximizes the chances of positive outcome and while minimizing non-specific damaging exposure to radiation.
Major differences between monoclonal antibodies and small-molecule drugs
The primary difference lies in their mechanisms of action. Small-molecule drugs are usually cell membrane permeable, diffusing into the cells to find their organelle targets.(4,5) In comparison, monoclonal antibodies target unique cell-specific markers on the external surface of the cell (peptide antigens) and do not permeate through the cell. Small molecule drugs have a direct impact on their targets, whereas all that monoclonal antibodies do is re-direct targets to the immune system for resolution. Small molecule drugs are given in oral or intravenous administration while monoclonal antibodies are always administered intravenously (they would be destroyed in the digestive system before making their way to the cancerous cells.)
More on clinical use of monoclonal antibodies.
Differences between Humanized and Chimeric Antibodies
Humanized antibodies derive from animals (non-human) but they have been changed to make them more amenable to human therapy.
Scientists at biotech companies often work with animal cell lines, especially murine (mouse) cells. The antibodies developed then are different in some ways from the antibodies that would arise from human cells and antibodies produced in the immune system of a human. To make the antibody effective and safe for therapeutic use in human patients, the murine antibody is modified, humanized.
Some antibodies in use are chimeric. Chimera in biology refers to proteins or constructs that derive from a fusion of parts from different origins. Chimeric antibodies are made from antibody sections that come from two different species. (In ancient mythology a chimera was a creature with parts from more than one animal.) Many mouse-human chimeric antibodies are used in cancer therapy.
Sometimes chimeric antibodies are made on the way to constructing a humanized antibody; there is further modification of the proteins. Most chimeric antibodies are not considered fully humanized.
Common Challenges of Monoclonal Antibody Usage
- Low immunogenicity of xenogeneic antibodies.
- Unscrupulous antigen shedding into circulation causing bystander effects.
- Inordinate vasculature in the tumor making targeting through intravenous injection to site of tumor challenging.
- Elevated hydrostatic pressure at the tumor site. Limited number of effector immune cells in the tumor microenvironment; hence even after recognition by the natural immune system the cells might still not be completely destroyed.
Dosing for monoclonal antibodies
Although doctors’ first instincts are to vary the dose of monoclonal antibodies with patient body size, mathematical simulation of pharmacokinetics suggest this variation may not provide better efficacy. This is in contrast to many drugs – and indeed most chemotherapy drugs – where bigger patients get higher doses. But mAbs are target-specific with a relatively large therapeutic window. The dangers of overdosing are lower than they are for conventional chemotherapy drugs. Some scientists therefore recommend a fixed dose (i.e. everyone gets the same dose) when these drugs are first used in humans, at least until data from real patients indicates a more nuanced approach is preferable.
PDF list of unconjugated Monoclonal Antibodies used in treatment of cancer: MonoclonalAntibodies
Atezolizumab
Brand/Trade Names: Tecentriq
Formula: C6446H9902N1706O1998S42
Origin: Humanized G1
Mechanism: anti-PD-L1
Administration: Intravenous
Notes: Approved by the FDA in 2016. Used to treat small cell lung cancer, urothelial carcinoma, breast cancer, non-small cell lung cancer.
Avelumab
Brand/Trade Names: Bavencio
Formula: C6374H9898N1694O2010S44
Origin: Human G1
Mechanism: anti-PD-L1
Administration: Intravenous
Notes: Approved by the FDA in 2017. Used for treatment of merkel cell carcinoma, renal cell carcinoma, and urothelial carcinoma,
Belantamab
Brand/Trade Names: Blenrep
Formula: C6484H10008N1728O2030S44
Origin: Humanized G1
Mechanism: anti-BCMA
Administration: Intravenous
Notes: First drug ever that targets BCMA (B-cell maturation antigen). Approved by the FDA in 2020. Approved for treatment of multiple myeloma.
Blinatumomab
Brand/Trade Names: Blincyto
Formula: C2367H3577N649O772S19
Origin: Mouse G1
Mechanism: Binds to CD19 and C3
Administration: Intravenous
Notes: Approved by the FDA in 2017. Used for treatment of B-cell acute lymphoblastic leukemia.
Cemiplimab-rwlc
Brand/Trade Names: Libtayo
Formula: C6380H9808N1688O2000S44
Origin: Human G4
Mechanism: Checkpoint Inhibitor. Anti-PD-1
Administration: Intravenous
Notes: Approved by the FDA in 2018. Used to treat of cutaneous squamous cell carcinoma.
Daratumumab
Brand/Trade Names: Darzalex
Formula: C6466H9996N1724O2010S42
Origin: Human G1
Mechanism: Binds toCD38
Administration: Intravenous
Notes: Approved by the FDA in 2015. Used for treatment of multiple myeloma.
Dinutuximab
Brand/Trade Names: Unituxin, Isquette
Formula: C6422H9982N1722O2008S48
Origin: Chimeric: Human/Mouse G2
Mechanism: Binds to GD2
Administration: Intravenous
Notes: Approved by the FDA in 2015. Used for treatment of neuroblastoma.
Durvalumab
Brand/Trade Names: Imfinzi
Formula: C6502H10018N1742O2024S42
Origin: Human G1
Mechanism: Anti-PD-L1
Administration: Intravenous
Notes: Approved by the FDA in 2017. Used for treatment of non-small cell lung cancer and urothelial carcinoma.
Elotuzumab
Brand/Trade Names: Empliciti
Formula: C6476H9982N1714O2016S42
Origin: Humanized G1
Mechanism: SLAMF7 blocker
Administration: Intravenous
Notes: Approved by the FDA in 2015. Used for treatment of multiple myeloma.
Ipilimumab
Brand/Trade Names: Yervoy
Formula: C6742H9972N1732O2004S40
Origin: Human G1
Mechanism: CTLA-4 blocker
Administration: Intravenous
Notes: Approved by the FDA in 2011. Used for treatment of melanoma, colorectal cancer, hepatocellular carcinoma, mesothelioma, non-small cell lung cancer, renal cell carcinoma.
Isatuximab-irfc
Brand/Trade Names: Sarclisa
Formula: C6456H9932N1700O2026S244
Origin: Chimeric – mouse and human G1
Mechanism: Binds to CD38
Administration: Intravenous
Notes: Approved by the FDA in 2020 for treatment of multiple myeloma.
Margetuximab
Brand/Trade Names: Margenza
Formula: C6484H10010N1726O2024S42
Origin: Chimeric – mouse and human G1
Mechanism: Anti-HER2
Administration: Intravenous
Notes: Approved by the FDA in 2020. Used for treatment of breast cancer.
Mogamulizumab
Brand/Trade Names: Poteligeo
Formula: C6520H10072N1736O2020S42
Origin: Humanized G1
Mechanism: Anti-CCR4
Administration: Intravenous
Notes: Approved by the FDA in 2018. Used for treatment of cutaneous T-cell lymphoma.
Naxitamab
Brand/Trade Names: Danyelza
Formula: C6414H9910N1718O1996S44
Origin: Humanized G1
Mechanism: Anti-G2
Administration: Intravenous
Notes: Approved by the FDA in 2020. Used for treatment of neuroblastoma.
Necitumumab
Brand/Trade Names: Portrazza
Formula: C6436H9958N1702O2020S42
Origin: Human G1
Mechanism: EGFR inhibitor
Administration: Intravenous
Notes: Approved by the FDA in 2015. Used for treatment of squamous non-small cell lung cancer.
Nivolumab
Brand/Trade Names: Opdivo
Formula: C6362H9862N1712O1995S42
Origin: Human G4
Mechanism: anti-PD-1
Administration: Intravenous
Notes: Approved by the FDA in 2014. Used for treatment of melanoma, lung cancer, renal cell carcinoma, lymphoma, head and neck cancer, colon cancer, and liver cancer.
Obinutuzumab
Brand/Trade Names: Gazyva
Formula: C6512H10060N1712O2020S44
Origin: Humanized G1
Mechanism: Binds to CD20
Administration: Intravenous
Notes: Approved by the FDA in 2013. Used for treatment of chronic lymphocytic leukemia and follicular lymphoma.
Ofatumumab
Brand/Trade Names: Arzerra
Formula: C6480H10022N1742O2020S44
Origin: Human G1
Mechanism: Binds to CD20
Administration: Intravenous
Notes: Approved by the FDA in 2014. Used for chronic lymphocytic leukemia. More about ofatumumab.
Olaratumab
Brand/Trade Names: Lartruvo
Formula: C6554H10076N1736O2048S40
Origin: Human G1
Mechanism: PDGFR-α blocker
Administration: Intravenous
Notes: Approved by the FDA in 2016. Withdrawn from market in 2019. Used for treatment of soft tissue sarcoma.
Panitumumab
Brand/Trade Names: Vectibix
Formula: C6398H9878N1694O2016S48
Origin: Human G2
Mechanism: Anti-EGFR
Administration: Intravenous
Notes: Approved by the FDA in 2006. Used for treatment of colorectal cancer.
Pembrolizumab
Brand/Trade Names: Keytruda
Formula: C6534H10004N1716O2036S46
Origin: Humanized G4
Mechanism: Anti-PD-1
Administration: Intravenous
Notes: Approved by the FDA in 2017. First tumor-agnostic drug to get approval. Used for treatment of cervical cancer, stomach cancer, Hodgkin’s Disease, merkel cell carcinoma, renal cell carcinoma, non-small cell lung cancer, microsatellite instability-high cancer, melanoma, hepatocellular carcinoma, large B-cell lymphoma, squamous cell carcinoma, urothelial carcinoma.
Pertuzumab
Brand/Trade Names: Perjeta
Formula:
Origin: Humanized G1
Mechanism: Anti-HER2
Administration: Intravenous
Notes: Approved by the FDA in 2012. Used for treatment of breast cancer.
Ramucirumab
Brand/Trade Names: Cyramza
Formula: C6374H9864N1692O1996S46
Origin: Human G1
Mechanism: Angiogenesis Inhibitor, anti-VEGFR2
Administration: Intravenous
Notes: Approved by the FDA in 2014. Used for treatment of hepatocellular carcinoma, colorectal cancer, non-small cell lung cancer, stomach adenocarcinoma.
Siltuximab
Brand/Trade Names: Sylvant
Formula: C6450H9932N1688O2016S50
Origin: Chimeric: Mouse/Human G1
Mechanism: interleukin-6 (IL-6) antagonist
Administration: Intravenous
Notes: Approved by the FDA in 2014. Used for treatment of Castleman disease.
Tafasitamab
Brand/Trade Names: Monjuvi
Formula: C6550H10092N1724O2048S52
Origin: Humanized G1
Mechanism: Binds to CD19
Administration: Intravenous
Notes: Approved by the FDA in 2020 for treatment of diffuse large B-cell lymphoma.
Trastuzumab
Brand/Trade Names: Herceptin
Formula: C6470H10012N1726O2013S42
Origin: Humanized G1
Mechanism: Anti-HER2
Administration: Intravenous
Notes: Approved by the FDA in 1998. Used for treatment of breast cancer and stomach adenocarcinoma.
Alemtuzumab
Brand/Trade Names: Campath
Formula: C6468H10066N1732O2005S40
Origin: Humanized G1
Mechanism: Anti-CD52
Administration: Intravenous
Notes: Also used to treat multiple sclerosis. Approved by the FDA in 2014. Used for treatment of B-cell chronic lymphocytic leukemia.
Rituximab
Brand/Trade Names: Rituxan
Formula: C6416H9874N1688O1987S44
Origin: Chimeric (mouse/human) G4
Mechanism: Binds to CD20
Administration: Intravenous
Notes: Approved by the FDA in 1997. Used for treatment of B-cell non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma, chronic lymphocytic leukemia.
Cetuximab
Brand/Trade Names: Erbitux
Formula: C6484H10042N1732O2023S36
Origin: Chimeric (mouse/human) G1
Mechanism: EGFR Inhibitor
Administration: Intravenous
Notes: Approved by the FDA in 2009. Used for treatment of colorectal cancer, non-small cell lung cancer, and squamous cell carcinoma of the head and neck.
Bevacizumab
Brand/Trade Names: Avastin
Formula: C6538H10034N1716O2033S44
Origin: Humanized (from mouse) G1
Mechanism: Angiogenesis inhibitor. Anti-VEGF
Administration: Intravenous
Notes: Approved by the FDA in 2004. First antiangiogenesis medicine in general use. Approved for treatment of colorectal cancer, renal cell carcinoma, cervical cancer, glioblastoma, non-small cell lung cancer, and ovarian epithelial cancer.
Brentuximab vedotin
Brand/Trade Names: Adcentris
Formula: C6476H9930N1690O2030S40
Origin: Chimeric (mouse/human) G1
Mechanism: Binds to CD30
Administration: Intravenous
Notes: First approved by the FDA in 2011. Approved for treatment of peripheral T-cell lymphoma, cutaneous T-cell lymphoma, cutaneous anaplastic large cell lymphoma, Hodgkin’s Disease, anaplastic large cell lymphoma.
References
1. Ehrlich P. Collected studies on immunity. (New York: J. Wiley & Sons, 1906).
2. Old LJ. Immunotherapy for cancer. Sci Am. 1996; 275:136-143.
3. Hanahan D, Weinberg RA. Hallmarks of cancer: the next generation. Cell 144:646-674, 2011.
4. Cersosimo RJ. Monoclonal antibodies in the treatment of cancer, Part 1 Am J Health Syst Pharm 60:1531-1548, 2003.
5. Cersosimo RJ. Monoclonal antibodies in the treatment of cancer, Part 2 Am J Health Syst Pharm 60:1631-1641, 2003.